Hydrophone Spatial Averaging Artifacts for Pulsed Doppler Beams from Array Transducers

This paper reports underestimation of peak compressional pressure (pc), peak rarefactional pressure (pr), and pulse intensity integral (pii) due to hydrophone spatial averaging of pulsed Doppler beams generated by clinical linear and phased arrays. Although a method exists for correcting for hydrophone spatial averaging for circularly-symmetric beams, there is presently no analogous method for rectangularly-symmetric beams generated by linear and phased arrays. Consequently, pressure parameters (pc, pr and pii) from clinical arrays are often not corrected for spatial averaging. This can lead to errors in Mechanical Index (MI) and Thermal Index (TI), which are derived from pressure measurements and are displayed in realtime during clinical ultrasound scans. Pulsed Doppler beams were generated using three clinical linear array transducers. Output pressure waveforms for all three transducers were measured using five hydrophones with geometrical sensitive element sizes (d
_g
) ranging from 85 to 1000 μm. Spatial averaging errors were found to increase with hydrophone sensitive element size. For example, if d
_g
= 500 μm (typical membrane hydrophone), frequency = 6 MHz and F /# = 2, then average errors are approximately -40% (pc), -20% (pr), and -50% (pii). Therefore, due to hydrophone spatial averaging, typical membrane hydrophones can exhibit significant underestimation of Doppler pressure measurements, which likely compromises exposure safety indexes.