Heuristic Optimization of PI Controllers for Time-Delayed LFC-EV Systems

This study proposes an optimization method for the proportional–integral (PI) controller gains of a single-area time-delayed load frequency control system with electric vehicles (LFC-EV). Four heuristic algorithms are used to optimize the PI controller gains: crow search algorithm (CSA), particle swarm optimization (PSO), vortex search algorithm (VSA), and sine-cosine algorithm (SCA). The integral square error (ISE) objective function is used in the optimization process for all algorithms. Finally, a time-domain simulation of the LFC-EV system is conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithms. The optimized PI controller gains exhibited superior performance compared to randomly selected gains, leading to decreased oscillations and faster settling times, as evidenced by the results.