I. Introduction
Due to rapid developments in information and communications technology (ICT) and the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, learning shifted from traditional classroom settings to distance learning. Distance learning, including self-directed and online learning, has become to be seen as a major learning setting. Distance learning provides learners flexibilities to participate the learning synchronous learning (e.g., live communication) or asynchronous (e.g., through a learning management system (LMS)). This flexibility affects interaction, engagement, and motivation of the learners, as well as learning assessments. Therefore, affective behaviours, including boredom, frustration, confusion, and engagement, need to be assessed and monitored in different ways from traditional classroom.